Marine and terrestrial biomarkers records in IODP Site 1432C in the South China Sea: linkage between paleoceanography and paleoclimate variability since the last 400 kyrs

1. Introduction

The South China Sea (SCS) is a typical marginal sea. It is connected to the low-latitude Pacific Ocean and encompasses well-preserved hemipelagic sediment that fosters much scientific attention (Fig. 1). SCS sediment reflects the variation in both global glacial-interglacial climatic and local monsoon intensity, as the tropical SCS plays an important role in global climate (Li et al., 2004, 2006, 2013; Boulay et al., 2005). Many studies have shown that the SCS sediment shows millennial-scale changes in terrestrial sediment input and provide important evidence of a variety of mechanisms involving the strength of East Asian monsoons and migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and their important roles in modulating tropical climate during the glacial and interglacial periods and even Holocene (Lin et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2016).

Fig. 1.

Physiographic map of the South China Sea (SCS) and surrounding areas (upper) and the locations of U1432C (lower).

Large portions of the sediment within the southern part of the SCS are thought to be delivered from two major neighboring rivers, the Pearl and Mekong Rivers. This means that the sedimentary record in the SCS may reflect direct inputs from these rivers, including terrestrial materials and other geological proxies that can be used to understand terrestrial environmental changes (Boulay et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2012). In addition to this direct inputs, sediment is thought to be transported by atmospheric circulation that depends on the intensity of monsoons that occur within continental Asia (Wang and Li, 2009). Therefore, sedimentary records of the SCS reflect both paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic changes that include South East Asian monsoon intensity (Lin et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2006; Wang and Li, 2009; Wang et al., 2014).

Two bio-proxies have been used to evaluate the linkage between paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic variability in the SCS and Asian continent. For this, alkenones have been used most widely to reconstruct past sea surface temperature (SST), which is directly related to climatic change in the SCS (Pelejero and Grimalt, 1997; Pelejero et al., 1999a, 1999b; Mercer and Zhao, 2004; Zhao et al., 2006). Fluctuations in alkenone-based SST (SST_alk) were initially reported for SCS sediments corresponding to glacial and interglacial periods (Pelejero et al., 1999a), where subsequent studies have connected such changes to both global climatic changes and monsoon variability (Pelejero, 2003; Wang et al., 2014). The second one, terrestrial biomarker n-alkane has also been studied in the SCS to understand hydro-climatic changes (Pelejero, 2003; Hu et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013, 2015b, 2015c). Therefore, alkenones and n-alkanes have both been used to understand the input of terrestrial proxies as paleovegetation changes, and so paleoclimate variation and their relationship in this study area (Sun et al., 2000; Pelejero, 2003; Hu et al., 2009; Li et al., 2011, 2013; Wang et al., 2014).

In terms of the importance of the SCS for understanding the linkage between the paleoceanography of the SCS and paleoclimate variability in East Asia, many studies have shown a major effect of the SCS on variability in the Asian monsoon intensity, as well as global ocean changes (Wan et al., 2006; Li et al., 2015c). For example, variation in the SST of the SCS is synchronous with Greenland warming during deglaciation (Kienast et al., 2001; Zhao et al., 2006) and the paleoceanography of the SCS should be associated with eustatic sea-level changes, the carbon reservoir, and with the paleoceanographic conditions of the western Pacific warm pool in global scale (Li et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2014). However, terrestrial inputs represented by n-alkanes and a comparison with paleoceanographic evolution and latitudinal differences were not fully discussed in these previous works. In this study, we reconstructed the past SST_alk and n-alkane concentrations in the SCS as they relate to variation in the East Asian monsoon intensity and SCS paleocealography during the last 400 ka. We used newly established chronostratigraphy to reconstruct these purposes, which provide insight into paleoceanographic variation and its relationship with paleoclimatc variability in the southern and northern SCS.

2. Materials and methods

The International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 349 site U1432C used in this study is located at 18°21.0831′N, 116°23.4504′E (water depth: 3,829 m) in the north part of the SCS (Fig. 1). Sediments from this site are composed of clay, silt and sand (Fig. 2). All the the samples used for the alkenones and n-alkanes were collected on-board and then analyzed at the KIOST.

Fig. 2.

Simplified lithology of U1432C and the analysis intervals are drawn only.

For the alkenones and n-alkanes analyses, lipids were extracted (x 3) from 5 g of dried sediment using a DIONEX-Accelerated Solvent Extractor ASE-200 at 100℃ and 1000 psi for 10 min with 11 ml of CH₂Cl₂-CH₃OH (6:4) and then concentrated. The lipid extract was separated into four fractions using column chromatography (SiO₂ with 5% distilled water; i.d., 5.5 mm; length, 45 mm): F1 (hydrocarbons), 3ml hexane; F2 (aromatic hydrocarbons), 3 ml hexane-toluene (3:1); F3 (ketones), 4 ml toluene; F4 (polar compounds), 3 ml toluene-CH₃OH (3:1); n-C₃₆H₇₄ was added as an internal standard to F3.

Gas chromatography (GC) for the analysis of alkenones and n-alkanes in the F3 and F1 fractions were conducted using a Hewlett Packard 5890 series II gas chromatography with on-column injection and electronic pressure control systems, and a flame ionization detector (FID). Samples were dissolved in hexane. Helium was the carrier gas and the flow velocity was maintained at 30 cm/s. A Chrompack CP-Sil₅CB column was used (length, 60 m; i.d., 0.25 mm; thickness, 0.25 μm). The oven temperature was programmed to rise from 70 to 290℃ at 20℃/min, from 290 to 310℃ at 0.5℃/min, and to hold at 310℃ for 30 min. Prior to quantification of lipids, a known aliquot of an internal standard, 5α-Cholestane (Sigma Aldrich), was added to the hydrocarbon fraction. The compound peak areas were normalized to those of the internal standards and converted to mass quantities using response curves for about 18 hydrocarbon standard compounds (Hydrocarbon Window Defining Standard, AccuStandard) analyzed in concentrations ranging from 10 to 200 μg/ml. The standard deviations of three duplicate analyses averaged 7.5% of the concentration for each compound. Peaks of n-alkanes and alkenones were identified by gas chromatographic retention times by analogy with synthetic standards. The concentrations of both compounds were calculated by comparing their peak areas to those of the internal standard.

Alkenone unsaturation index UK'₃₇ was calculated from the concentrations of di- and tri-unsaturated C₃₇ alken-2-ones [C37MK] using the following expression (Prahl and Wakeham, 1987; Prahl et al., 1988): UK'₃₇ = [C_37:2MK]/([C_37:2MK] + [C_37:3MK]). Temperature was calculated according to the equation: UK'₃₇ = 0.031T + 0.092, where T = temperature [℃] based on previous results from the SCS (Pelejero and Grimalt, 1997). Analytical accuracy was 0.24℃ in laboratory condition.

3. Results and discussions

3.1 Lithostratigraphy and age model

To understand the details of paleoceanographic variation and its relationship to variability of the East Asian monsoon, it is first necessary to reconstruct a reliable sedimentary lithostratigraphy. Sediment from Site U1432C from northern South China Sea (northern SCS) is composed mainly of clay, with minor contributions of silt and sand, with intermittent turbidite layers (Fig. 2). The lithostratigraphic unit of the studied site was defined as only one unit, implying that U1432C (northern SCS) the sediment of this site has not significant variation. Sediments were only taken from 0 to 51.3 mbsf in U1432C (Li et al., 2015a) (Table 1). A simplified lithostratigraphy was constructed based on onboard sedimentological characteristics, biostratigraphic data and magnetostratigraphy, and used in this study (Fig. 2).

Table 1.

Comparison of alkenone concentration and n-alkane data with several references.

Based on the on-board measurement, the age of the bottom in U1432C (110 mbsf) is less than 0.91 Ma; characterized by marine microfossil, occurs at the B/M boundary, which corresponds to 105 mbsf (0.781 Ma). Additionally, the average sedimentation rate of ~12 cm/ky does not vary within the sediment column (Li et al., 2015a). However, the samples used in this study do not not cover the whole age span. Only samples from the upper part (present to 400 kyrs) were used due to the absence of continuous samples (Fig. 2, 3). The average sedimentation rates were approximately ~12.1 cm/kyr. This relatively high sedimentation rate makes it possible to compare with the past changes in SCS.

Fig. 3.

Age model for this site. Original data and each age control points were from the model defined by Li et al. (2015a). A.R.S is average sedimentation rate.

3.2 Alkenone concentration, alkenone-based SST (SST_alk)

The total alkenone C₃₇ contents of sediment from the studied sites are highly variable. The total alkenone C₃₇ concentration (μg/g) ranged from 0.03 to 2.75 μg/g (average: 0.43 μg/g; n = 73) and varies among different sampling depth with a great degree of fluctuation (Fig. 4). However, it is characterized by a striking drop at several layers, with low concentrations. Entirely, total C₃₇ alkenone contents for this site is similar to those from the Okhotsk Sea (Harada at al., 2008) and the East Sea of Korea (Lee et al., 2008; Hyun et al., 2013) (Table 1). Also, values in total C₃₇ alkenones are similar to previous results from the SCS (Pelejero et al., 1999a; Zhao et al., 2006), suggesting that the total C₃₇ alkenone concentrations are reasonable and are reliable proxies for the reconstruction of paleoenvironmental changes in SCS.

Fig. 4.

The total alkenone concentration (C37) and alkenone-based sea surface temperature (SSTalk) in studied Site. The SSTalk reconstructed using the formulae of Pelejero and Grimalt (1997) is given. All points are three-point moving averages.

The concentration of total alkenones can be attributed to different population densities of Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica in ocean. Haptophyte microalgae usually produce a particular class of lipid, long-chain unsaturated ketones, in specific environments, although the exact synthetic mechanism is also associated with factors including nutrients levels, water temperature, and other physical conditions. The total C₃₇ alkenones comprise C_37:2, C_37:3, and C_37:4, which are expressed as di-(C_37:2), tri-(C_37:3), and tetra-unsaturated (C_37:4) members. Among these three compounds, C_37:4 (C_37:4%) was not detected in this study, even though its presence in natural and cultured samples has been reported previously (Sikes et al., 1997; Sicre et al., 2002). The absence of certain coccolith species may result in the absence of C_37:4 in the SCS. G. oceanica is probably more likely to produce alkenones in the SCS. Therefore, the paleoceanographic conditions within the SCS for producing C₃₇ alkenones may differ from other oceanographic conditions. One study also reported the absence of C_37:4 alkenones in the southern SCS (ODP Leg 184) (Mercer and Zhao, 2004). This suggests that oceanographic conditions were not favorable for C_37:4 alkenone synthesis, where such oceanographic conditions could differ from other oceans since production initiation at approximately 31 Ma (Pelejero et al., 1999b; Mercer and Zhao, 2004).

The alkenone-based SST_alk variations in this study range from 22.8-27.6℃ (average: 25.86℃; n = 73). Previous studies that investigated changes in SST differences during the Pleistocene found that the difference in SST_alk was as much as 4℃ during the last 1.0 Ma, with distinct glacial-interglacial fluctuation, and it became lower by as much as about 1℃ around 2.0 Ma (Herbert et al. 2010). The most important characteristic of sedimentary records for constructing SST_alk records is the glacial-interglacial cyclic fluctuation in SCS (Li et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2014). In particular, alkenone-related proxies also show that the SST_alk in the SCS remains steady at ~29℃, noting fluctuations of <1℃ before 2.7 Ma, followed by strong oscillations after this time (Li et al., 2011). The SST_alk generally showed fluctuations on a millennial scale and was strongly associated with monsoons during the more recent late Pleistocene period (Pelejero et al., 1999a; Zhao et al., 2006). Similarly, the SST_alk determined in this study appears to have varied cyclically since approximately 400 ky (Fig. 4). This means that paleoceanographic conditions over the last 400 ka reflect the global glacial-interglacial regime.

The SST_alk differences are dominated by glaciers, indicating strengthening during glaciation and weakening during winter monsoons in interglacial periods (Wang et al., 2014). Therefore, the SST_alk fluctuation during glacial-interglacial in SCS may be linked to the global evolution of paleoclimate conditions. Larger fluctuation between wet and dry conditions occurring since 1 Ma, as shown by terrestrial n-alkane biomarker, may be associated with neighboring continental paleoclimatology (Li et al., 2013).

3.3 n-alkane concentration, and its variation and sources

In general, n-alkanes derived from epicuticular leaf waxes are dominated by long, odd-numbered alkanes within the nC₂₄-nC₃₅ range (Eglinton and Eglinton, 2008). Because high-molecular-weight n-alkanes such as nC₂₉ and nC₃₁ mainly come from higher land plants, the total n-alkane concentration is usually used to indicate the predominance of paleo-vegetation species and the abundance of land-derived plants (Li et al., 2013). These long-chain n-alkanes are easily transported from land to the ocean, where their abundance and variability may reflect variation in the plant communities within the source areas. Therefore, n-alkane predominance and its distribution can be used to determine the type of higher plant, and thus useful for tracking environmental changes (Sikes et al., 2009; Ahad et al., 2011).

In this study, the concentration of total n-alkanes (nC₂₅~nC₃₅) varied widely, and showed time-dependent variation in individual n-alkane components in this site (Fig. 5, 6; Table 1). There was a predominance of odd-numbered compounds, but this distribution included an exceptional distribution, as seen in a sample from the 190~230 ka (Fig. 7). This exceptional event is consistent with an extremely high n-alkane concentration, as much as two to five times higher than those of other intervals (Fig. 5). Considering that an odd-numbered distribution is a distinct characteristic of the n-alkane distribution, this exceptional case is interpreted as being influenced by different sources of vegetation or plant communities.

Fig. 5.

The time-dependence of total n-alkane concentrations and n-alkane/TOC. TOC (%) and C/N ratios were referred from initial report of IODP (Li et al., 2015a). All points are three-point moving averages.

Fig. 6.

Three representative n-alkane distributions are illustrated. The n-alkane distribution clearly differed over time, suggesting paleovegetation changes in the source area.

Fig. 7.

Vertical profiles of nC31/nC27, average chain length (ACL) and carbon preference index (CPI) in studied site, suggesting dry conditions when the ratio was high and vice versa. Clear lowering patterns of this ratio were recognized in two intervals; approximately from 380 ka to 210 ka, and from 180 ka to present (two arrows) implying long-term paleoclimatic variability.

As nC₃₁ is derived from grassland plants and nC₂₇ from forest trees and shrubs (Li et al., 2013), high nC₃₁/nC₂₇ ratio is used to detect dry conditions during glaciation, where lower values occur during wetter conditions in interglacial periods. As shown in Fig. 7, nC₃₁/nC₂₇ fluctuated between approximately 1 and 3, which is similar to the SCS sediment records obtained by Li et al., (2013). Given this information, nC₃₁/nC₂₇ is useful for detecting shifts in hydroclimate conditions within source areas, the rough lowering trend observed between 400 ka and 210 ka, and 190 ka and present may attribute to periodic warming and gradual wetting condition, long-range paleoclimatic variation. These fluctuations may contribute to glacial-interglacial cycles or long-term climatic changes in East Asia; note that this may also be due to paleovegetation changes in source areas. As mentioned, high-molecular-weight n-alkanes (nC₂₇ and nC₃₁) derived from epicuticular leaf waxes (higher plants), and can be easily transported into oceans, even over long distances (Yokoyama et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2009). Therefore, both nC₂₇ and nC₃₁ appearing in studied sediment are useful for detecting past variation in the paleovegetation and paleoclimate of source areas. In particular, periodic long-term lowing in nC₃₁/nC₂₇ may imply gradual warming and wetting paleoclimatic variability in East Asian continent. Instead, distinctive decrease in nC₃₁/nC₂₇ could be observed at around 10 ka, 110 ka and 220 ka (arrows in Fig. 7) indicating 100 ka cyclic short-term wet condition.

The ACL is defined by the average chain length of n-alkanes derived from higher terrestrial plants. It usually refers to the average number of carbon atoms per molecule and provides insight into the variability in alkane distribution. Changes in ACL are therefore strongly associated with the temperature and aridity of the plant growing environment (Collister et al., 1994). This means that the leaf wax chain length can change to protect plants by minimizing water evaporation. Therefore, it is possible to delineate possible n-alkane sources by identifying environmental differences, even though the usefulness of this approach is limited only to source-specific n-alkane distribution (Jeng, 2006).

We showed that ACL fluctuated widely throughout with significant differences. In particular, about 200 ka range gradual decrerase of ACL is quite similar with the excursion of nC₃₁/nC₂₇, which indicates that paleovegetation changes are further related to local climatic changes (Fig. 7). Therefore, changes that occurred around 210 ka imply diverse plant communities due to changes in latitude or supply differences due to paleoclimate variation. An intermittent increase in ACL around 370 ka may indicate a temporal increase in merged C₃ plants. This pattern can be interpreted as indicating variation in the plant population throughout the entire interval, further indicating broad paleoclimatic variation. Pelejero (2003) used Quaternary sediment from SCS ODP Site 1143 to show that the ACL of n-alkanes varies from 29 to 31, which is consistent with our result and with another study in the same area (Li et al., 2013) (Fig. 7). In addition to ACL, carbon preference index (CPI) originating from terrestrial plant waxes also provides valuable information regarding the n-alkane source (Bi et al., 2005). Terrestrial plant waxes generally have high CPI (>3), whereas lower CPI is reflective of short-chain n-alkane distribution. In our study, CPI values fluctuated widely and ranged from 1.0 to 4.0 (Fig. 7).

Previously, Li et al., (2013) attributed CPI variation (specifically within lower values of CPI) to the following four reasons: 1) petroleum intermixture, 2) post-depositional alterations, 3) older detrital intermixture, and 4) marine algal response. In the case of petroleum sources, petrogenic hydrocarbons generally reduce the final CPI in sediment (Seki et al., 2004; Jeng, 2006). The n-alkanes in petrogenic sources, such as crude oil and high rank coal, generally do not show a preference for odd-carbon numbers, and tend to have high concentrations in the nC₁₅-nC₂₅ range (Petersen et al., 2007). This implies that their sources can be modeled using a simple two end-member model (Ishiwatari et al., 1994; Street et al., 2013), and supports that most n-alkanes are supplied from terrestrial leaf waxes. Therefore, the molecular composition of lipid biomarkers provides important proxies for discriminating source materials (Nott et al., 2000; Yokoyama et al., 2006; Yamamoto et al., 2010). In our data, CPI values are generally greater than 1; therefore, long-term admixture in marine settings is not possible, and degradation by microbial activity might eliminate previous carbon ratios in alkanes. Older detrital matter intermixtures and marine algal response during the Pleistocene interglacial period may have also reduced the CPI. As a consequence, all of these factors could have altered the CPI. However, their influence on the high molecular weight and odd carbon ratios observed is minor (Zhou et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013).

3.4 Paleoceanography and its relationship with East Asian Monsoon var iability

3.4.1 Alkenones

The concentration of total alkenones within the SCS sediments shows significant variability in terms of its age and location (Mercer and Zhao, 2004; Boulay et al., 2005). Specifically, alkenone compounds may have been synthesized during the last 31 Ma, when low latitude Pacific Ocean water inflows into the SCS dominated primitive SCS paleoceanography. In present study, alkenone C_37:4 is not found in the SCS as reported previously (Pelejero and Grimalt, 1997), although alkenones C_37:2, C_37:3, and C_37:4 were present in similar marginal basins such as the East Sea (Fujine et al., 2009; Hyun et al., 2013) and Okhotsk Sea (Harada et al., 2006, 2008).

The concentration of total alkenones and the corresponding initiation of alkenone synthesis are thought to be associated with long-range paleoceanography evolution in the SCS. As discussed earlier, SST_alk in this study ranged from 22.8-27.6℃, approximately corresponding to previous studies (Pelejero et al., 1999a; Zhao et al., 2006); specifically, SCS from ODP Site 1143, Site 1146 (Herbert et al., 2010). Therefore, our results reflect the SCS SST_alk well and may coincide with global SST_alk variation throughout the last 400 ka (Table 1).

To understand the relationship between SST_alk and indices of n-alkanes as a proxy of paleoclimatic variation, we performed a spectral analysis spanning the last 400 ka. A dominant power at the obliquity band (ca. 0.024 cycles/kyr) was observed in SST_alk, as shown in Fig. 8. Previous studies determined long-term terrestrial cycles within the Loess Plateau in China, in which a Quaternary ocean cycle occurred in ~400 kyr rhythms that was ascribed to long eccentricity in orbital forcing (Wang et al., 2014). Generally, it is true that orbital cycles are a prominent feature in SST_alk in the SCS, where previous works show long-term cyclic variation based on SST_alk and foraminiferal variation based on transfer functions (Wang et al., 2014).

Fig. 8.

Spectral analysis of SSTalk and n-alkanes. Orbital cycles (possible obliquity) can be recognized in SSTalk at site U1432C.

Several methods such as foraminiferal transfer function and a stable isotope study of foraminifera have shown the SST variation for the last 2 Ma, and have been compared with each other (Wang et al., 2014 and references therein), which show global-scale variation over the last 2 Ma. Likewise, this study reconstructed the glacial-interglacial fluctuation of SST_alk for the last 400 ka using biomarker studies, and the spectral analysis results in clear obliquity and precession cycles. Considering these SST variations in previous studies, the SST_alk variation during glacial-interglacial periods also reflects global and regional variation in solar energy, demonstrating climatic influences and reflect possible variation in the East Asian monsoons.

3.4.2 n-alkanes

Long-term changes in paleoceanographic conditions in the SCS have been associated with Asian tectonic events, noting much long-term variation (Li et al., 2006). One of the best examples of the relationship between tectonic and paleoceanography evolution was by Li et al. (2006). Specifically, changes in the SCS have been linked to SCS rifting, spreading, and monsoon influence since 33 Ma, where the prevalence of glaciers characterized the last 5-0 Ma. This implies that sediment supplied by river influx, as well as atmospheric influences such as aeolian dust, contributed to long-term paleoclimatic variation. Indeed, our data show long-range fluctuation in n-alkane total concentration, with gradual change. The total concentration of total n-alkanes may be related to several mechanisms, including the degree of synthesis within the source area and its transportation and biodegradation. As we discussed earlier, total n-alkane concentration shows considerable fluctuation over time, with significant increases around 180 and 380 ka. These abrupt increase in n-alkanes in these intervals may be attributed to a climatic event observed by SST_alk at this site.

As discussed previously, n-alkane distribution can be assessed in terms of paleovegetation extent, and is used therefore to estimate the climatic conditions of the source area. A representative ACL index can differentiate between arid and/or wet conditions by chain length, as shown in Li et al. (2015c). Because ACL is concentration-weighted, and comprised mainly of C₂₇, C₂₉ and C₃₁n-alkanes, variation in ACL is commonly associated with changes in temperature and aridity of the growing environment of plants (Poynter et al., 1989). As shown in Fig. 7, C₃₁/C₂₇ shows drastic variation, which are roughly coincident with ACL variation. These proxies imply paleoclimate variation within East Asia and may influence paleoceanographic variation as their flux can be detected in sediment records.

To better understand the relationship between n-alkane flux and SST_alk in this study, spectral analysis was conducted over the last 400 ka. The spectral analysis for n-alkanes did not show any patterns, which may indicate that n-alkane concentration is influenced by multiple variables beyond climatic factors. For example, lithogenic input such as clay minerals can dilute organic matter, and n-alkane concentration also decreases exponentially over time (Boulay et al., 2005). As discussed earlier, the orbital cycles in both SST_alk and each compound or indices analyzed do not show consistent patterns, whereas SST_alk shows 40 kyr obliquity like orbital cycle.

Concerning the relationship between n-alkane input and SST_alk, the n-alkane concentration appears to maintain an inverse relationship with SST_alk in SCS sediment (Pelejero, 2003). This study revealed that the pattern of glacial to interglacial variability of the n-alkane concentration is parallel, and it shows a linear inverse relationship to the SST_alk, with high concentrations during cold glacial intervals and low ones during warm interglacial periods. They interpreted this inverse relationship and terrestrial markers as being due to emergence and flooding of the shelves due to sea-level variation. The comparison between SST_alk and total n-alkane concentration in our study seems to suggest an inverse relationship, although linear curve fitting was not conducted. Therefore, given that SST_alk is a proxy of paleoceanographic variation, the high fluctuation in the n-alkane concentration and its inverse relationship might be associated with the paleoclimatic variation in East Asia, and this is recorded in SCS sediments.

4. Conclusions

Sediments collected from the IODP Exp. 349 site within the SCS were investigated to understand paleoceanographic variation and paleoclimatic variability, specifically the relationship between these two factors over the last 400 ka. The marine biomarkers, alkenones concentrations, and alkenonederived SST_alk delineate striking temporal differences. The SST_alk exhibited orbital cyclic variation during the last 400 ka. Estimated SST_alk ranged from 22.8-27.6℃ (average: 25.86℃; n = 76), reflecting glacial-interglacial variation.

The concentrations of n-alkanes (nC_25-35) show high fluctuation. The average chain length (ACL) and carbon preference index (CPI) showed large shifts and fluctuations in terrestrial organic compounds. Several terrestrial biomarker indices (such as ACL and CPI) indicated long-term variation, hinting to large variation in SCS paleoceanography in conjunction with paleoclimatic variation in East Asia. The inverse relationship between SST_alk and the influx of n-alkanes supports the association of a high flux of n-alkane with cold and arid conditions, and low SST_alk in paleoceanographic conditions in the SCS.

Spectral analysis of SST_alk shows orbital cycle with high spectrum power; however, the results for the proxies of n-alkanes do not match with those of SST_alk. Therefore, paleoceanographic variation and the influx of terrestrial organic biomarkers are associated with the paleoclimatic variation in SCS. In particular, the variability in the East Asian monsoon has been influenced on the variations of paleoceanography. Differences in SST_alk and n-alkane concentration in this site may be linked to paleoceanographic conditions as well as changes in Asian monsoon intensity over the last 400 ka.

Acknowledgments

This research used samples and/or provided data by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP). Funding for this research was provided by the K-IODP (PM62120), which was funded by Ministry of Ocean and Fisheries, Korea. We thank the two reviewers for their helpful comments and crews of South China Sea Exp 349. This study was supported by the KIOST program (PE99775) in part.

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